Introduction to the History of Cyprus

The strategic location of Cyprus in the north-eastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea has always played a significant role in its history. At the crossroads between East and West, and facing the fertile valley of the Nile, the island in antiquity was in close proximity to the great civilizations of the Syro- Palestinian coast, while it was also linked to areas of the Aegean and Asia, through intense interactions and exchanges. As a consequence, Cyprus attracted the attention of several great Empires of the antiquity such as the Assyrians, the Persians, the Macedonians and the Romans. The control of the island – the third largest island in the Mediterranean basin after Sicily and Sardinia – was of a crucial importance for the political, economic and strategic interests of these major Empires. Cyprus was exalted for its important geographical position, but mainly for its legendary wealth, already in antiquity. The Greek geographer Strabo (63BC – AD21) wrote in 23 BC: « In fertility Cyprus is not inferior to any one of the islands, for it produces both good wine and good oil, and also a sufficient supply of grain for its own use. And at Tamassus there are abundant mines of copper, in which is found chalcanthite and also the rust of copper, which latter is useful for its medicinal properties. Eratosthenes says that in ancient times the plains were thickly overgrown with forests, and therefore were covered with woods and not cultivated; that the mines helped a little against this, since the people would cut down the trees to burn the copper and the silver, and that the building of the fleets further helped, since the sea was now being navigated safely, that is, with naval forces, but that, because they could not thus prevail over the growth of the timber, they permitted anyone who wished, or was able, to cut out the timber and to keep the land thus cleared as his own property and exempt from taxes ». Rich, fertile meadows, abundant fresh water, dense forests that covered the mountains of Troodos and the Kyrenia mountain range, olives, vines, fruit and nuts, figs, almonds and pistachios, carobs, pomegranates, palms and lotus, wild animals like moufflon, wild pig, fox, also domesticated animals like, pigs, goats, sheep, dogs and cats composed the Cypriot environment of the ancient times. The ancient Cypriot environment was composed by rich, fertile meadows, abundant fresh water, and dense forests that covered the mountains of Troodos and the Kyrenia mountain range. The flora of the island was rich with products, such as olives, vines, fruit, figs, almonds and pistachios, carobs, pomegranates, palms and lotus. The fauna consisted of wild animals, such as the moufflon, wild pig, and the fox, while domesticated animals included pigs goats, sheep, and cats. Ancient Cyprus was particularly famous for its copper resources. Due to the discovery and mining of copper ores the island became infamous for the production and trading of raw material and metal objects. The principal copper ores are on the north and northeast slopes of the Troodos mountains.

This unit aims to examine the various political and social changes in Cyprus from the 4th to the end of the 12th centuries.

This unit examines the social, economic, ecclesiastical, and political history of Frankish and Venetian Cyprus in the context of Europe and the Near East in the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

This unit examines: a) the situation in the Ottoman Empire and Cyprus on the eve of the conquest of the island by the Ottomans, the events of the War of Cyprus, as well as the policies adopted by the new rulers of the island.b) the application of the classical Ottoman system in Cyprus, in administration, landtenure, categories of population, as well as the position of the Church, in the first century after the conquest. It also examines the adverse conditions of life and their effects on the island’s population. c) the history of Cyprus in the age of Ottoman decentralization, covering the period between 1670-1830. It studies the changes in the administration, the political and social situation, as well as in the local institutions of authority in the island. It also examines the changes in classical Ottoman institutions, like the land-tenure system, with the creation of the çiftliks, and the consequences of the rise of commerce. Finally, it analyzes the causes and repercussions of the events of 1821 in Cyprus. d) the history of Cyprus in the period of Ottoman reforms, describing how the Ottomans attempted to apply the reforms to the island, the degree of their success, as well as the reaction of the local population. It finally examines the role of Cyprus in the Eastern Question and the British Occupation of 1878.

This chapter, which explores the history of the island from the onset of British rule in 1878 to the end of the Second World War in 1945, is divided into three units. Unit one (covering the period from 1878 to the onset of the World War in 1914) initially examines the British decision to acquire Cyprus from the Ottoman Empire in 1878. It then discusses the main issues which preoccupied the British (and locals) on the island during the first decades of British rule. Without a doubt, the most important question the British faced was the demand of the Greek Cypriot majority for the union of the island with Greece (Enosis), and unit one sets this question in its appropriate context. The first unit also pays attention to matters of economy; the Tribute, it will be shown, formed one of the major grievances in Anglo-Cypriot relations until the late 1920s. The unit also examines the role of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the challenges it faced during its transition from Ottoman to British rule, as well as constitutional and educational matters. Unit two examines the history of the island between the two world wars. It discusses how and in what ways Enosis politics were influenced by developments, both inside and outside Cyprus. Also central to the account is an examination of social, economic and educational developments as these were accelerated at the aftermath of World War I. By examining the above, attention is given to how each of these factors brought friction to relations between the locals and the colonial authority and how such a tense relationship finally led to the outbreak of the 1931 revolt, the first instance of open defiance against the British. The unit examines the consequences the revolt and its suppression had on the daily life of Cypriots. Particular focus is given to the period of the Governorship of Richmond Palmer. The final unit examines the fundamental changes Cyprus witnessed during the Second World War. This unit explains how the Cypriot contribution to the Allied war effort forced the British to allow at least a partial disengagement from the post-1931 regime. This resulted in the remaking of the political scene of the island and the emergence of new parties. The unit examines the British attitude toward war developments, including the revival of Enosis after Greece’s entry in the war and the growth of a labour movement facilitated by the war. Emphasis is given to how the war experience paved the way for future developments.

This chapter aims to discuss the Cyprus question, from the end of the Second World War until the establishment of the Cyprus Republic in 1960. Analysis will involve three levels: international, regional and Cypriot developments, which affected the course of the Cyprus question.

This chapter aims to discuss internal developments, political, economic and social, in Cyprus from the end of the Second World War until the establishment of the Cyprus Republic in 1960. The analysis will also include the demographic reality in the island, education, and the effect of the anti-colonial movement on social structures.

This chapter aims to present the early history of the Republic of Cyprus. Created through a sui generis process (independence had not been among the objectives of the armed struggle and the rules governing its existence had been produced outside Cyprus), the new state was born and operated in a strange environment. The international stage (the Cold War was in full swing) was also an important factor in internal developments. All this together in the context of the events described in previous chapters created an unstable political scene. A number of challenges to the new state from home and abroad (and often simultaneously from both) came almost immediately to the fore. Structural weaknesses compounded the local problems. The efforts of the international community added another factor, sometimes stabilising, sometimes not.

The 1974 coup and the two-part Turkish invasion that followed it are probably the two most important events in the post-independence history of Cyprus. Traumatic as they are, they serve as the cause of a radical reorientation of the Greek-Cypriot political life and the gradual creation of a party system that, in its general outline, has endured well into the 21st century. The two events are also the beginning of a long struggle for the formulation of a new solution to the Cyprus problem and are followed by a most remarkable and highly successful effort at economic reconstruction that has brought Cyprus “from rags to riches” and into the EU, within three decades of a major military, social and economic disaster.

This chapter aims to present the response of the main international and european organizations on the Turkish invasion in Cyprus in 1974. Special reference will be made of the international community response on the consequences of the Turkish invasion, such as the issues of the missing persons, the refugees, the enclaved persons and the settlers. At the same time the chapter touches on the United States and the (then) Soviet Union response on the Turkish agression against Cyprus in 1974.

This chapter aims to present the initiatives of the international community for solving the Cyprus Problem, from the end of the Turkish invasion until 1999. Special reference will be made to the agreements reached between the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot sides and the developments that influenced the efforts for finding a comprehensive settlement.

This chapter presents the developments from 1999 to 2004 which resulted, for the first time, in a Plan which was put in a referendum for the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots to vote. Special reference will be made to the role of the international community during the 1999-2004 period and how the prospect of Cyprus joining the European Union was approached as a catalyst for finding a solution to the Cyprus Problem.